semiconductor The implementation of these proposals in those years could not take place due to insufficient development of technology.

At the end of 1958 and in the first half of 1959, a breakthrough took place in the semiconductor industry. Three men, representing three private American corporations, solved three fundamental problems that were preventing the creation of integrated circuits. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments patented the principle of combination, created the first, imperfect, prototypes of IP and brought them to mass production. Kurt Legovets from Sprague Electric Company invented a method for electrically insulating components formed on a single semiconductor chip (p-n junction insulation). P–n junction isolation)). Robert Noyce from Fairchild Semiconductor invented a method for electrically connecting IC components (aluminum metallization) and proposed an improved version of component insulation based on the latest planar technology of Jean Herni. Jean Hoerni). On September 27, 1960, Jay Last's band Jay Last) created on Fairchild Semiconductor the first working one semiconductor IP based on the ideas of Noyce and Ernie. Texas Instruments, which owned the patent for Kilby's invention, launched a patent war against competitors, which ended in 1966 with a global agreement on cross-licensing technologies.

Early logic ICs of the mentioned series were literally built from standard components, the sizes and configurations of which were specified by the technological process. Circuit designers who designed logic ICs of a particular family operated with the same standard diodes and transistors. In 1961-1962 the leading developer broke the design paradigm Sylvania Tom Longo, for the first time using different ICs in one configurations of transistors depending on their functions in the circuit. At the end of 1962 Sylvania launched the first family of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) developed by Longo - historically the first type of integrated logic that managed to gain a foothold in the market for a long time. In analog circuitry, a breakthrough of this level was made in 1964-1965 by the developer of operational amplifiers Fairchild Bob Vidlar.

The first domestic microcircuit was created in 1961 at TRTI (Taganrog Radio Engineering Institute) under the leadership of L. N. Kolesov. This event attracted the attention of the country's scientific community, and TRTI was approved as the leader in the system of the Ministry of Higher Education on the problem of creating highly reliable microelectronic equipment and automating its production. L.N. Kolesov himself was appointed Chairman of the Coordination Council on this problem.

The first hybrid thick-film integrated circuit in the USSR (series 201 “Trail”) was developed in 1963-65 at the Research Institute of Precision Technology (“Angstrem”), mass production since 1965. Specialists from NIEM (now the Argon Scientific Research Institute) took part in the development.

The first semiconductor integrated circuit in the USSR was created on the basis of planar technology, developed in early 1960 at NII-35 (then renamed the Pulsar Research Institute) by a team that was later transferred to NIIME (Mikron). The creation of the first domestic silicon integrated circuit was concentrated on the development and production with military acceptance of the TS-100 series of integrated silicon circuits (37 elements - the equivalent of the circuit complexity of a flip-flop, an analogue of the American IC series S.N.-51 companies Texas Instruments). Prototype samples and production samples of silicon integrated circuits for reproduction were obtained from the USA. The work was carried out at NII-35 (director Trutko) and the Fryazino Semiconductor Plant (director Kolmogorov) under a defense order for use in an autonomous altimeter for a ballistic missile guidance system. The development included six standard integrated silicon planar circuits of the TS-100 series and, with the organization of pilot production, took three years at NII-35 (from 1962 to 1965). It took another two years to develop factory production with military acceptance in Fryazino (1967).

In parallel, work on the development of an integrated circuit was carried out in the central design bureau at the Voronezh plant semiconductor devices(now -). In 1965, during a visit to the VZPP by the Minister of Electronics Industry A.I. Shokin, the plant was instructed to carry out research work on the creation of a silicon monolithic circuit - R&D “Titan” (Ministry Order No. 92 of August 16, 1965), which was completed ahead of schedule completed by the end of the year. The topic was successfully submitted to the State Commission, and a series of 104 diode-transistor logic microcircuits became the first fixed achievement in the field of solid-state microelectronics, which was reflected in the MEP order No. 403 dated December 30, 1965.

Design Levels

Currently (2014), most integrated circuits are designed using specialized CAD systems, which make it possible to automate and significantly speed up production processes, for example, obtaining topological photomasks.

Classification

Degree of integration

Depending on the degree of integration, the following names of integrated circuits are used:

• small integrated circuit (MIS) - up to 100 elements per chip,
• medium integrated circuit (SIS) - up to 1000 elements per chip,
• large integrated circuit (LSI) - up to 10 thousand elements per chip,
• ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (VLSI) - more than 10 thousand elements in a crystal.

Previously, now outdated names were also used: ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (ULIS) - from 1-10 million to 1 billion elements in a crystal and, sometimes, giga-large-scale integrated circuit (GBIC) - more than 1 billion elements in a crystal. Currently, in the 2010s, the names “UBIS” and “GBIS” are practically not used, and all microcircuits with more than 10 thousand elements are classified as VLSI.

Manufacturing technology

• Semiconductor chip - all elements and inter-element connections are made on one semiconductor crystal (for example, silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, hafnium oxide).

• Film integrated circuit - all elements and inter-element connections are made in the form of films:
  • thick film integrated circuit;
  • thin film integrated circuit.
• Hybrid chip (often called microassembly), contains several diodes, transistors and/or other electronic active components. The microassembly may also include unpackaged integrated circuits. Passive microassembly components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are usually manufactured using thin-film or thick-film technologies on a common, usually ceramic, substrate of a hybrid chip. The entire substrate with components is placed in a single sealed housing.
• Mixed microcircuit - in addition to the semiconductor crystal, it contains thin-film (thick-film) passive elements located on the surface of the crystal.

Type of processed signal

Manufacturing technologies

Types of logic

The main element of analog microcircuits are transistors (bipolar or field-effect). The difference in transistor manufacturing technology significantly affects the characteristics of microcircuits. Therefore, the manufacturing technology is often indicated in the description of the microcircuit in order to emphasize general characteristics properties and capabilities of the microcircuit. Modern technologies combine bipolar and field effect transistors to achieve improved performance of microcircuits.

• Microcircuits based on unipolar (field-effect) transistors are the most economical (in terms of current consumption):
  • MOS logic (metal-oxide-semiconductor logic) - microcircuits are formed from field-effect transistors n-MOS or p-MOS type;
  • CMOS logic (complementary MOS logic) - each logical element of the microcircuit consists of a pair of complementary (complementary) field-effect transistors ( n-MOS and p-MOP).
• Microcircuits based on bipolar transistors:
  • RTL - resistor-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
  • DTL - diode-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
  • TTL - transistor-transistor logic - microcircuits are made of bipolar transistors with multi-emitter transistors at the input;
  • TTLSh - transistor-transistor logic with Schottky diodes - an improved TTL that uses bipolar transistors with the Schottky effect;
  • ECL - emitter-coupled logic - on bipolar transistors, the operating mode of which is selected so that they do not enter the saturation mode - which significantly increases performance;
  • IIL - integral injection logic.
• Microcircuits using both field-effect and bipolar transistors:

Using the same type of transistors, chips can be created using different methodologies, such as static or dynamic.

CMOS and TTL (TTLS) technologies are the most common logic chips. Where it is necessary to save current consumption, CMOS technology is used, where speed is more important and saving on power consumption is not required, TTL technology is used. Weak point CMOS chips are vulnerable to static electricity - just touch the pin of the chip with your hand, and its integrity is no longer guaranteed. With the development of TTL and CMOS technologies, the parameters of microcircuits are getting closer and, as a result, for example, the 1564 series of microcircuits are made using CMOS technology, and the functionality and placement in the case are similar to TTL technology.

Microcircuits manufactured using ESL technology are the fastest, but also the most energy consuming, and were used in production computer technology in cases where the most important parameter was the calculation speed. In the USSR, the most productive computers of the ES106x type were manufactured on ESL microcircuits. Nowadays this technology is rarely used.

Process

In the manufacture of microcircuits, the method of photolithography (projection, contact, etc.) is used, in which the circuit is formed on a substrate (usually silicon) obtained by cutting single crystals of silicon with diamond disks into thin wafers. Due to the small linear dimensions of microcircuit elements, the use of visible light and even near ultraviolet radiation for illumination was abandoned.

The following processors were fabricated using UV radiation (ArF excimer laser, wavelength 193 nm). On average, industry leaders introduced new technological processes according to the ITRS plan every 2 years, doubling the number of transistors per unit area: 45 nm (2007), 32 nm (2009), 22 nm (2011), production of 14 nm started in 2014 , the development of 10 nm processes is expected around 2018.

In 2015, there were estimates that the introduction of new technological processes would slow down.

Quality control

To control the quality of integrated circuits, so-called test structures are widely used.

Purpose

An integrated circuit can have complete, no matter how complex, functionality - up to an entire microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).

Analog circuits

• Filters (including piezoelectric effect).
• Analog multipliers.
• Analog attenuators and variable amplifiers.
• Power supply stabilizers: voltage and current stabilizers.
• Switching power supply control microcircuits.
• Signal converters.
• Synchronization circuits.
• Various sensors (for example, temperature).

Digital circuits

• Buffer converters
• (Micro)processors (including CPUs for computers)
• Chips and memory modules
• FPGAs (programmable logic integrated circuits)

Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:

• Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, the active elements of electronic devices (transistors) operate in the “key” mode, that is, the transistor is either “open” - which corresponds to a high-level signal (1), or “closed” - (0), in the first case at There is no voltage drop in the transistor; in the second, no current flows through it. In both cases, power consumption is close to 0, in contrast to analog devices, in which most of the time the transistors are in an intermediate (active) state.
• High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example, 2.5-5 V) and low (0-0.5 V) level signals. A state error is possible at such a level of interference that a high level is interpreted as a low level and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices It is possible to use special codes to correct errors.
• The large difference in the state levels of high- and low-level signals (logical “0” and “1”) and a fairly wide range of their permissible changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable dispersion of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminates the need to select components and configure adjustment elements in digital devices.

Analog-to-digital circuits

• digital-to-analog (DAC) and analog-to-digital converters (ADC);
• transceivers (for example, interface converter  Ethernet);
• modulators and demodulators;
  • radio modems
  • teletext, VHF radio text decoders
  • Fast Ethernet and optical transceivers
  • Dial-Up modems
  • digital TV receivers
  • optical mouse sensor
• power supply microcircuits for electronic devices - stabilizers, voltage converters, power keys etc.;
• digital attenuators;
• phase-locked loop (PLL) circuits;
• generators and frequency restorers of clock synchronization;
• base matrix crystals (BMC): contains both analog and digital circuits;

Chip series

Analog and digital microcircuits are produced in series. A series is a group of microcircuits that have a single design and technological design and are intended for joint use. Microcircuits of the same series, as a rule, have the same power supply voltages and are matched in terms of input and output resistances and signal levels.

Housings

Specific names

Legal protection

Russian legislation provides legal protection to integrated circuit topologies. The topology of an integrated circuit is the spatial-geometric arrangement of the set of elements of an integrated circuit and the connections between them recorded on a material medium (Article 1448

Name the first computing device. Abacus Calculator Adding machine Russian abacus What idea did he put forward in the middle

19th century English mathematician Charles Babbage?

The idea of ​​​​creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device

The idea of ​​creating cell phone

The idea of ​​creating computer-controlled robots

In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?

1945, USA

1944, England

1946, France

On what basis were third generation computers created?

Integrated circuits

semiconductors

vacuum tubes

ultra-large-scale integrated circuits

What was the name of the first personal computer?

Name the central device of the computer.

CPU

System unit

power unit

Motherboard

The processor processes the information presented:

IN decimal system dead reckoning

On English

In Russian

In machine language (in binary code)

To enter numeric and text information, use

Keyboard

The scanner is used for...

To enter images into a computer and text documents

For drawing on it with a special pen

Moving the cursor on the monitor screen

Obtaining holographic images

10. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing financial documents?

Dot Matrix Printer

Inkjet printer

Laser printer

What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing abstracts?

Dot Matrix Printer

Inkjet printer

Laser printer

What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing photos?

Dot Matrix Printer

Inkjet printer

Laser printer

Failure to comply with the sanitary and hygienic requirements of a computer can have a harmful effect on human health...

Cathode ray tube monitor

LCD monitor

Plasma panels

When you turn off your computer, all information is erased from...

RAM

Hard drive

laser disk

In what computer device is information stored?

External memory;

CPU;

The optical tracks are thinner and placed more densely on...

Digital video disc (DVD disc)

Compact disk (CD-disk)

Input devices include...

Output devices include...

Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone

Speakers, monitor, printer, earphone

Hard drive, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk

The program is called...

Computer program can control the operation of the computer if it is located...

IN RAM

On a floppy disk

On hard drive

On CD

Data is...

The sequence of commands that a computer executes while processing data

Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer

Data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory

The file is...

Text printed on a computer

Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer

A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory

When quickly formatting a floppy disk...

The disk directory is being cleared

All data is erased

Disk defragmentation in progress

The disk surface is being checked

When fully formatting a floppy disk...

all data is erased

produced full check disk

The disk directory is being cleaned

the disk becomes system

In a multi-level hierarchical file system...

Files are stored in a system that is a system of nested folders

Files are stored in a system that is a linear sequence

History of the development of computer technology:

1. Name the first computing device.
1) Abacus
2) Calculator
3) Arithmometer
4) Russian abacus

2. What idea was put forward by the English mathematician Charles Babbage in the mid-19th century?
1) The idea of ​​​​creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device
2) The idea of ​​​​creating a cell phone
3) The idea of ​​​​creating computer-controlled robots
3. Name the first computer programmer.
1) Ada Lovelace
2) Sergey Lebedev
3) Bill Gates
4) Sofya Kovalevskaya

4. In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?
1) 1945, USA
2) 1950, USSR
3) 1944, England
4) 1946, France

5. On what basis were third generation computers created?
1) Integrated circuits
2) semiconductors
3) vacuum tubes
4) ultra-large-scale integrated circuits

6. What was the name of the first personal computer?
1) Apple II
2) IBM PC
3) Dell
4) Corvette
Computer structure........................15
1. Name the central device of the computer.
1) Processor
2) System unit
3) Power supply
4) Motherboard
2. How is physical information recorded and transmitted to a computer?
1) numbers;
2) using programs;
3) is represented in the form of electrical signals.

3. The processor processes the information presented:
1) In the decimal number system
2) In English
3) In Russian
4) In machine language (in binary code)
4. To enter numeric and text information, use
1) Keyboard
2) Mouse
3) Trackball
4) Handle
5. The most important characteristic of coordinate input devices is resolution, which is usually 500 dpi (dot per inch (1 inch = 2.54 cm)), which means...
1) When you move the mouse one inch, the mouse pointer moves 500 points
2) When moving the mouse 500 points, the mouse pointer moves one inch
6. The scanner is used for...
1) For entering images and text documents into a computer
2) To draw on it with a special pen
3) Moving the cursor on the monitor screen
4) Obtaining holographic images
Output devices................................21
1. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing financial documents?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
2. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing abstracts?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer

1. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing photos?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
2. Failure to comply with the sanitary and hygienic requirements of the computer can have a harmful effect on human health...
1) Cathode ray tube monitor
2) Liquid crystal monitor
4) Plasma panels
3. A device that provides recording and reading of information is called...
1) Disk drive or storage device

4. When you turn off the computer, all information is erased from...
4) RAM
5) Hard drive
6) Laser disk
7) Floppy disks
13. In what computer device is information stored?
1) External memory;
2) monitor;
3) processor;
2. Optical tracks are thinner and placed more densely on...
1) Digital video disc (DVD disc)
2) Compact disk (CD - disk)
3) Floppy disk
3. On which disk is information stored on concentric tracks on which magnetized and non-magnetized areas alternate?
1) On a floppy disk
2) On CD
3) On DVD

4. Input devices include...

1) Hard drive, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
5. Output devices include...
1) Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone
2) Speakers, monitor, printer, earphone
3) Hard drive, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
6. A program is called...

7. A computer program can control the operation of a computer if it is located...
1) In RAM
2) On a floppy disk
3) On the hard drive
4) On a CD
8. Data is...
1) The sequence of commands that the computer executes during data processing
2) Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
3) Data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory
9. A file is...
1) Text printed on a computer
2) Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
3) A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory

10. When quickly formatting a floppy disk...
1) The disk directory is being cleaned
2) All data is erased
3) The disk is being defragmented
4) A check is carried out according to

1. When and by whom were counting and punching machines invented? What problems were solved on them?

2. What is an electromechanical relay? When were relay computers created? How fast were they?
3. Where and when was the first computer built? What was it called?
4. What was the role of John von Neumann in the creation of the computer?
5. Who was the designer of the first domestic computers?
6. On what elemental base were the first generation machines created? What were their main characteristics?
7. On what element base were the second generation machines created? What are their advantages compared to the first generation of computers?
8. What is an integrated circuit? When were the first integrated circuit computers created? What were they called?
9. What new areas of computer application have arisen with the advent of third-generation machines?

Integrated Circuit (IC) is a microelectronic product that performs the functions of signal conversion and processing, which is characterized by dense packing of elements so that all connections and connections between elements form a single whole.

An integral part of an IC are elements that act as electrical and radio elements (transistors, resistors, etc.) and cannot be separated as independent products. In this case, IC elements that perform the functions of amplification or other signal conversion (diodes, transistors, etc.) are called active, and elements that implement a linear transfer function (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are called passive.

Classification of integrated circuits:

By manufacturing method:

According to the degree of integration.

The degree of integration of an information system is an indicator of complexity, characterized by the number of elements and components it contains. The degree of integration is determined by the formula

where k is a coefficient that determines the degree of integration, rounded to the nearest larger integer, and N is the number of elements and components included in the IS.

To quantitatively characterize the degree of integration, the following terms are often used: if k ? 1, An IC is called a simple IC if 1< k ? 2 - средней ИС (СИС), если 2 < k ? 4 - большой ИС (БИС), если k ?4 - сверхбольшой ИС (СБИС).

In addition to the degree of integration, another indicator is used as the packing density of elements - the number of elements (most often transistors) per unit area of ​​​​the crystal. This indicator mainly characterizes the level of technology; currently it is more than 1000 elements/mm 2.

Film integrated circuits- these are integrated circuits, the elements of which are deposited on the surface of a dielectric base in the form of a film. Their peculiarity is that they do not exist in their pure form. They are used only for the manufacture of passive elements - resistors, capacitors, conductors, inductors.

Rice. 1. Structure of a film hybrid IC: 1, 2 - lower and upper capacitor plates, 3 - dielectric layer, 4 - wire connecting bus, 5 - mounted transistor, 6 - film resistor, 7 - pin terminal, 8 - dielectric substrate

Hybrid ICs are thin-film microcircuits consisting of passive elements (resistors, capacitors, pads) and discrete active elements (diodes, transistors). The hybrid IC shown in Fig. 1, is a dielectric substrate with film capacitors and resistors applied to it and an attached mounted transistor, the base of which is connected to the upper plate of the capacitor by a bus in the form of a very thin wire.

In semiconductor ICs All elements and inter-element connections are made in the bulk and on the surface of the semiconductor crystal. Semiconductor ICs are a flat semiconductor crystal (substrate), in the surface layer of which, using various technological techniques, local areas equivalent to the elements of an electrical circuit are formed (diodes, transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.), united along the surface by film metal connections (interconnections).

The substrates of semiconductor ICs are round wafers of silicon, germanium or gallium arsenide, having a diameter of 60 - 150 mm and a thickness of 0.2 - 0.4 mm.

The semiconductor substrate is a group workpiece (Fig. 2), on which a large number of ICs are simultaneously manufactured.

Rice. 2. Group silicon wafer: 1 - basic cut, 2 - individual crystals (chips)

After completing the main technological operations, it is cut into parts - crystals 2, also called chips. The dimensions of the crystal sides can be from 3 to 10 mm. The base cut 1 of the plate serves to orient it during various technological processes.

The structures of the elements of a semiconductor IC - transistor, diode, resistor and capacitor, manufactured by appropriate doping of local sections of the semiconductor using planar technology methods, are shown in Fig. 3, a-d. Planar technology is characterized by the fact that all the terminals of the IC elements are located in the same plane on the surface and are simultaneously connected into an electrical circuit using thin-film interconnects. With planar technology, group processing is carried out, i.e., during one technological process, a large number of ICs are produced on substrates, which ensures high manufacturability and efficiency, and also allows automation of production.

Rice. 3. Structures of elements of a semiconductor IC: a - transistor, b - diode, c - resistor, d - capacitor, 1 - thin-film contact, 2 - dielectric layer, H - emitter; 4 - base, 5 - collector, 6 - cathode, 7 - anode, 8 - insulating layer; 9 - resistive layer, 10 - insulating layer, 11 - plate, 12, 14 - upper and lower electrodes of the capacitor, 13 - dielectric layer

In combined ICs(Fig. 4), which are a variant of semiconductor ones, create semiconductor and thin-film elements on a silicon substrate. The advantage of these circuits is that it is technologically difficult to manufacture resistors of a given resistance in a solid body, since it depends not only on the thickness of the doped semiconductor layer, but also on the distribution of resistivity over the thickness. Adjusting the resistance to the nominal value after manufacturing the resistor also presents significant difficulties. Semiconductor resistors have a noticeable temperature dependence, which complicates IC development.

Rice. 4. Structure of the combined IC: 1 - silicon dioxide film, 2 - diode, 3 - film in-circuit connections, 4 - thin-film resistor, 5, 6, 7 - upper and lower electrodes of the thin-film capacitor and dielectric, 8 - thin-film contacts, 9 - transistor, 10 - silicon wafer.

In addition, it is also very difficult to create capacitors in solids. To expand the resistor and capacitor ratings of semiconductor ICs and improve their performance characteristics, a combination technology based on thin film technology called interconnected circuit technology has been developed. In this case, the active elements of the IC (possibly some resistors that are not critical in terms of nominal resistance) are manufactured in the body of the silicon crystal using the diffusion method, and then passive elements - resistors, capacitors and interconnections - are formed by vacuum deposition of films (as in film ICs).

The electronics element base is developing at an ever-increasing pace. Each generation, having appeared at a certain point in time, continues to improve in the most justified directions. The development of electronic products from generation to generation is moving in the direction of their functional complexity, increasing reliability and service life, reducing overall dimensions, weight, cost and energy consumption, simplifying technology and improving the parameters of electronic equipment.

The emergence of microelectronics as an independent science became possible thanks to the use of rich experience and the base of the industry producing discrete semiconductor devices. However, as semiconductor electronics developed, serious limitations in the use of electronic phenomena and systems based on them became clear. Therefore, microelectronics continues to advance at a rapid pace both in the direction of improving semiconductor integrated technology and in the direction of using new physical phenomena. radio electronic integrated circuit

Microelectronics products: integrated circuits of various degrees of integration, microassemblies, microprocessors, mini- and micro-computers - made it possible to carry out the design and industrial production of functionally complex radio and computing equipment, which differs from equipment of previous generations in better parameters, higher reliability and service life, shorter energy consumption and cost. Equipment based on microelectronics products is widely used in all areas of human activity.

Microelectronics contributes to the creation of computer-aided design systems, industrial robots, automated and automatic production lines, communications equipment and much more.

First stage

The first stage included the invention of the incandescent lamp in 1809 by the Russian engineer Ladygin.

The discovery in 1874 by the German scientist Brown of the rectifying effect in metal-semiconductor contacts. The use of this effect by Russian inventor Popov to detect radio signals allowed him to create the first radio receiver. The date of invention of radio is considered to be May 7, 1895, when Popov gave a report and demonstration at a meeting of the physics department of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society in St. Petersburg. IN different countries development and research were carried out on various types of simple and reliable detectors of high-frequency vibrations - detectors.

Second stage

The second stage in the development of electronics began in 1904, when the English scientist Fleming designed an electric vacuum diode. This was followed by the invention of the first amplification tube, the triode, in 1907.

1913 - 1919 was a period of rapid development of electronic technology. In 1913, the German engineer Meissner developed a circuit for a tube regenerative receiver and, using a triode, obtained undamped harmonic oscillations.

In Russia, the first radio tubes were manufactured in 1914 in St. Petersburg by Nikolai Dmitrievich Papaleksi, a consultant to the Russian Society of Wireless Telegraphy, a future academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Third stage

The third period in the development of electronics is the period of the creation and implementation of discrete semiconductor devices, which began with the invention of the point-point transistor. In 1946, a group led by William Shockley was created at the Bell Telephone Laboratory, which conducted research on the properties of semiconductors on Silicon and Germany. The group carried out both theoretical and experimental studies of physical processes at the interface between two semiconductors with various types electrical conductivity. As a result, three-electrode semiconductor devices were invented - transistors. Depending on the number of charge carriers, transistors were divided into:

• - unipolar (field), where unipolar media were used.
• - bipolar, where different polarity carriers (electrons and holes) were used.

The invention of the transistor was a significant milestone in the history of electronics and therefore its authors John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley were honored Nobel Prize in physics for 1956

The emergence of microelectronics

With the advent of bipolar field-effect transistors, ideas for the development of small-sized computers began to be realized. On their basis, they began to create on-board electronic systems for aviation and space technology. Since these devices contained thousands of individual electroradio elements and more and more of them were constantly required, technical difficulties arose. With the increase in the number of elements of electronic systems, it was practically impossible to ensure their operability immediately after assembly, and to ensure, in the future, the reliability of the systems. The problem of the quality of installation and assembly work has become the main problem for manufacturers in ensuring the operability and reliability of radio-electronic devices. The solution to the interconnection problem was a prerequisite for the emergence of microelectronics. The prototype of future microcircuits was a printed circuit board, in which all single conductors are combined into a single whole and manufactured simultaneously in a group method by etching copper foil with the plane of the foil dielectric. The only type of integration in this case is conductors. Although the use of printed circuit boards does not solve the problem of miniaturization, it does solve the problem of increasing the reliability of interconnections. Printed circuit board manufacturing technology does not make it possible to simultaneously manufacture other passive elements other than conductors. This is why printed circuit boards did not become integrated circuits in modern understanding. Thick-film hybrid circuits were the first to be developed in the late 40s; their production was based on the already proven technology for manufacturing ceramic capacitors, using the method of applying pastes containing silver and glass powder to a ceramic substrate through stencils.

Thin-film technology for the production of integrated circuits involves applying thin films of various materials (conducting, dielectric, resistive) to the smooth surface of dielectric substrates in a vacuum.

Fourth stage

In 1960, Robert Noyce of Fairchild proposed and patented the idea of ​​a monolithic integrated circuit and, using planar technology, produced the first silicon monolithic integrated circuits.

A family of monolithic transistor-transistor logic elements with four or more bipolar transistors on a single silicon chip was released by Fairchild already in February 1960 and was called “micrologics”. Horney's planar technology and Noyce's monolithic technology laid the foundation for the development of integrated circuits in 1960, first with bipolar transistors, and then 1965-85. on field-effect transistors and combinations of both.

Two policy decisions adopted in 1961-1962. influenced the development of the production of silicon transistors and ICs. The decision of IBM (New York) to develop for a promising computer not ferromagnetic storage devices, but electronic memories (storage devices) based on n-channel field-effect transistors (metal-oxide-semiconductor - MOS). The result of the successful implementation of this plan was the release in 1973. universal computer with MOS memory - IBM-370/158. Directive decisions of Fairchild providing for the expansion of work in the semiconductor research laboratory for the study of silicon devices and materials for them.

Meanwhile, in July 1968, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce left Fairchild's semiconductor division and on June 28, 1968, organized a tiny company, Intel, with twelve people who rented a room in Mountain View, California. The task that Moore, Noyce and the chemical technology specialist who joined them, Andrew Grove, set themselves was to use the enormous potential of integrating a large number of electronic components on a single semiconductor chip to create new types of electronic devices.

In 1997, Andrew Grove became "person of the year", and the company he led Intel company, which became one of the leading companies in Silicon Valley in California, began to produce microprocessors for 90% of all personal computers planets. The emergence of integrated circuits played a decisive role in the development of electronics, ushering in a new stage of microelectronics. Microelectronics of the fourth period is called schematic, because in the composition of the main basic elements it is possible to distinguish elements equivalent to discrete electro-radio elements and each integrated circuit corresponds to a certain fundamental electrical diagram, as for electronic components of equipment of previous generations.

Integrated circuits began to be called micro electronic devices, considered as a single product having a high density of elements equivalent to the elements of a conventional circuit. The complexity of the functions performed by microcircuits is achieved by increasing the degree of integration.

Electronics present

Currently, microelectronics is moving to high-quality new level- nanoelectronics.

Nanoelectronics is primarily based on the results of fundamental studies of atomic processes in low-dimensional semiconductor structures. Quantum dots, or zero-dimensional systems, represent the limiting case of reduced-dimensional systems that consist of an array of nanometer-sized atomic clusters or islands in a semiconductor matrix that exhibit self-organization in epitaxial heterostructures.

One of possible works related to nanoelectronics is work on the creation of materials and elements of IR technology. They are in demand by industry enterprises and are the basis for the creation in the near future of “artificial” (technical) vision systems with an expanded spectral range, compared to biological vision, in the ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum. Technical vision systems and photonic components on nanostructures, capable of receiving and processing huge amounts of information, will become the basis of fundamentally new telecommunication devices, environmental and space monitoring systems, thermal imaging, nanodiagnostics, robotics, precision weapons, counter-terrorism equipment, etc. The use of semiconductor nanostructures will significantly reduce the size of monitoring and recording devices, reduce energy consumption, improve cost characteristics and make it possible to take advantage of mass production in micro- and nanoelectronics of the near future.

Tasks for § 1.3

WORLD WIDE WEB

1. The following are the queries to the search engine:

Present the results of these queries graphically using Euler circles. Indicate the request numbers in ascending order of the number of documents that the search engine will find for each request.

369 " style="width:276.55pt;border-collapse:collapse">

request

Pages found

tea&coffee

tea| coffee

How many pages will be found for the query “tea”?

_____________________________________________________

Solve the number crossword puzzle.

Look for answers to questions on the World Wide Web.

Horizontal. 1. The year the first integrated circuit made on a silicon wafer went on sale. 3. Year of birth. 4. The year preceding the release year of Windows 3.1.
8. Year of birth of Blaise Pascal. 9. Year of birth of Ada Lovelace.

Vertical. 1. Year of birth of Leonardo da Vinci. 2. The year in which the French engineer Valtat came up with the idea of ​​using binary system calculus in the creation of mechanical counting devices.
3. Year of commissioning of MESM. 5. The year in which the BASIC programming language was developed. 6. Year of birth of Euclid (BC).
7. Year of birth of Aristotle (BC)

First integrated circuits

Dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the official date

B. Malashevich

On September 12, 1958, Texas Instruments (TI) employee Jack Kilby demonstrated to management three strange devices - devices made from two pieces of silicon measuring 11.1 x 1.6 mm glued together with beeswax on a glass substrate (Fig. 1). These were three-dimensional mock-ups - prototypes of an integrated circuit (IC) of the generator, proving the possibility of manufacturing all circuit elements based on one semiconductor material. This date is celebrated in the history of electronics as the birthday of integrated circuits. But is this true?

Rice. 1. Layout of the first IP by J. Kilby. Photo from the site http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958-Miniaturized.html

By the end of the 1950s, the technology of assembling electronic equipment (REA) from discrete elements had exhausted its capabilities. The world had come to an acute crisis of REA; radical measures were required. By this time, integrated technologies for the production of both semiconductor devices and thick-film and thin-film ceramic circuit boards had already been industrially mastered in the USA and the USSR, i.e. the prerequisites were ripe for overcoming this crisis by creating multi-element standard products - integrated circuits.

Integrated circuits (chips, ICs) include electronic devices of varying complexity, in which all similar elements are manufactured simultaneously in a single technological cycle, i.e. using integrated technology. Unlike printed circuit boards (in which all connecting conductors are simultaneously manufactured in a single cycle using integrated technology), resistors, capacitors, and (in semiconductor ICs) diodes and transistors are similarly formed in ICs. In addition, many ICs are manufactured simultaneously, from tens to thousands.

ICs are developed and produced by industry in the form of series, combining a number of microcircuits for various functional purposes, intended for joint use in electronic equipment. The series ICs have a standard design and a unified system of electrical and other characteristics. ICs are supplied by the manufacturer to various consumers as independent commercial products that meet a certain system of standardized requirements. ICs are non-repairable products; when repairing electronic equipment, failed ICs are replaced.

There are two main groups of ICs: hybrid and semiconductor.

In hybrid ICs (HICs), all conductors and passive elements are formed on the surface of a microcircuit substrate (usually ceramic) using integrated technology. Active elements in the form of packageless diodes, transistors and semiconductor IC crystals are installed on the substrate individually, manually or automatically.

In semiconductor ICs, connecting, passive and active elements are formed in a single technological cycle on the surface of a semiconductor material (usually silicon) with partial invasion of its volume using diffusion methods. At the same time, on one semiconductor wafer, depending on the complexity of the device and the size of its crystal and wafer, from several tens to several thousand ICs are manufactured. The semiconductor IC industry produces standard cases, in the form of individual crystals or in the form of undivided plates.

The introduction of hybrid (GIS) and semiconductor ICs to the world occurred in different ways. GIS is a product of the evolutionary development of micromodules and ceramic board mounting technology. Therefore, they appeared unnoticed; there is no generally accepted date of birth of GIS and no generally recognized author. Semiconductor ICs were a natural and inevitable result of the development of semiconductor technology, but they required the generation of new ideas and the creation of new technology, which have their own dates of birth and their own authors. The first hybrid and semiconductor ICs appeared in the USSR and the USA almost simultaneously and independently of each other.

The first hybrid ICs

Hybrid ICs include ICs, the production of which combines the integral technology of manufacturing passive elements with individual (manual or automated) technology for installing and assembling active elements.

Back in the late 1940s, the Centralab company in the USA developed the basic principles for the manufacture of thick-film ceramic-based printed circuit boards, which were then developed by other companies. The basis was the manufacturing technology of printed circuit boards and ceramic capacitors. From printed circuit boards we took an integrated technology for forming the topology of connecting conductors - silk-screen printing. From capacitors - the substrate material (ceramics, often sital), as well as the materials of the pastes and the thermal technology of their fixation on the substrate.

And in the early 1950s, the RCA company invented thin-film technology: by spraying various materials in a vacuum and depositing them through a mask onto special substrates, they learned how to simultaneously produce many miniature film connecting conductors, resistors and capacitors on a single ceramic substrate.

Compared to thick-film technology, thin-film technology provided the possibility of more precise manufacturing of smaller-sized topology elements, but required more complex and expensive equipment. Devices manufactured on ceramic circuit boards using thick-film or thin-film technology are called “hybrid circuits.” Hybrid circuits were produced as components of products of their own production; each manufacturer had their own design, dimensions, and functional purposes; they did not enter the free market, and therefore are little known.

Hybrid circuits have also invaded micromodules. At first, they used discrete passive and active miniature elements, united by traditional printed wiring. The assembly technology was complex, with a huge share of manual labor. Therefore, micromodules were very expensive, and their use was limited to on-board equipment. Then thick film miniature ceramic scarves were used. Next, resistors began to be manufactured using thick-film technology. But the diodes and transistors used were still discrete, individually packaged.

The micromodule became a hybrid integrated circuit at the moment when unpackaged transistors and diodes were used in it and the structure was sealed in a common housing. This made it possible to significantly automate the process of their assembly, sharply reduce prices and expand the scope of application. Based on the method of forming passive elements, thick-film and thin-film GIS are distinguished.

The first GIS in the USSR

The first GIS (modules of the “Kvant” type, later designated IS series 116) in the USSR were developed in 1963 at NIIRE (later NPO Leninets, Leningrad) and in the same year its pilot plant began their serial production. In these GIS, semiconductor ICs “R12-2”, developed in 1962 by the Riga Semiconductor Devices Plant, were used as active elements. Due to the inextricability of the histories of the creation of these ICs and their characteristics, we will consider them together in the section devoted to P12-2.

Undoubtedly, the Kvant modules were the first in the world of GIS with two-level integration - they used semiconductor ICs rather than discrete packaged transistors as active elements. It is likely that they were also the first in the world of GIS - structurally and functionally complete multi-element products, supplied to the consumer as an independent commercial product. The earliest foreign similar products identified by the author are the IBM Corporation SLT modules described below, but they were announced the following year, 1964.

The first GIS in the USA

The appearance of thick-film GIS as the main element base of the new IBM System /360 computer was first announced by IBM in 1964. It seems that this was the first use of GIS outside the USSR; the author was unable to find earlier examples.

Already known at that time in specialist circles, the semiconductor IC series “Micrologic” from Fairchild and “SN-51” from TI (we will talk about them below) were still inaccessibly rare and prohibitively expensive for commercial applications, such as the construction of a large computer. Therefore, the IBM corporation, taking the design of a flat micromodule as a basis, developed its series of thick-film GIS, announced under the general name (as opposed to “micromodules”) - “SLT modules” (Solid Logic Technology - solid logic technology. Usually the word “solid” translated into Russian as “solid”, which is absolutely illogical. Indeed, the term “SLT modules” was introduced by IBM as a contrast to the term “micromodule” and should reflect their difference. But both modules are “solid”, i.e. this translation is not. The word “solid” also has other meanings – “solid”, “whole”, which successfully emphasize the difference between “SLT modules” and “micromodules” - SLT modules are indivisible, non-repairable, i.e. “whole”. We did not use the generally accepted translation into Russian: Solid Logic Technology - technology of solid logic).

The SLT module was a half-inch square ceramic thick-film microplate with pressed-in vertical pins. Connecting conductors and resistors were applied to its surface using silk-screen printing (according to the diagram of the device being implemented), and unpackaged transistors were installed. Capacitors, if necessary, were installed next to the SLT module on the device board. While externally almost identical (micromodules are slightly taller, Fig. 2.), SLT modules differed from flat micromodules in their higher density of elements, low power consumption, high performance and high reliability. In addition, SLT technology was quite easily automated, therefore they could be produced in huge quantities at a cost low enough for use in commercial equipment. This is exactly what IBM needed. The company built an automated plant in East Fishkill near New York for the production of SLT modules, which produced them in millions of copies.

Rice. 2. USSR micromodule and SLT module f. IBM. Photo STL from the site http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/display/3-1.htm

Following IBM, other companies began to produce GIS, for which GIS became a commercial product. The standard design of flat micromodules and SLT modules from IBM has become one of the standards for hybrid ICs.

The first semiconductor ICs

By the end of the 1950s, the industry had every opportunity to produce cheap elements of electronic equipment. But if transistors or diodes were made of germanium and silicon, then resistors and capacitors were made of other materials. Many then believed that when creating hybrid circuits there would be no problems in assembling these elements, manufactured separately. And if it is possible to produce all the elements of a standard size and shape and thereby automate the assembly process, then the cost of the equipment will be significantly reduced. Based on such reasoning, supporters of hybrid technology considered it as the general direction for the development of microelectronics.

But not everyone shared this opinion. The fact is that mesa transistors, and especially planar transistors, already created by that period, were adapted for group processing, in which a number of operations for the manufacture of many transistors on one substrate plate were carried out simultaneously. That is, many transistors were manufactured on one semiconductor wafer at once. Then the plate was cut into individual transistors, which were placed in individual cases. And then the hardware manufacturer combined the transistors on one printed circuit board. There were people who thought this approach was ridiculous - why separate the transistors and then connect them again. Is it possible to combine them immediately on a semiconductor wafer? At the same time, get rid of several complex and expensive operations! These people came up with semiconductor ICs.

The idea is extremely simple and completely obvious. But, as often happens, only after someone first announced it and proved it. He proved that simply announcing it is often, as in this case, not enough. The idea of ​​an IC was announced back in 1952, before the advent of group methods for manufacturing semiconductor devices. At the annual conference on electronic components, held in Washington, an employee of the British Royal Radar Office in Malvern, Jeffrey Dummer, presented a report on the reliability of radar equipment elements. In the report he made a prophetic statement: “ With the advent of the transistor and work in the field of semiconductor technology, it is generally possible to imagine electronic equipment in the form of a solid block containing no connecting wires. The block may consist of layers of insulating, conducting, rectifying and reinforcing materials in which certain areas are cut out so that they can directly perform electrical functions.”. But this forecast went unnoticed by experts. They remembered it only after the appearance of the first semiconductor ICs, that is, after the practical proof of a long-publicized idea. Someone had to be the first to reinvent and implement the semiconductor IC idea.

As in the case of the transistor, the generally recognized creators of semiconductor ICs had more or less successful predecessors. Dammer himself made an attempt to realize his idea in 1956, but failed. In 1953, Harvick Johnson of RCA received a patent for a single-chip oscillator, and in 1958, together with Torkel Wallmark, announced the concept of a “semiconductor integrated device.” In 1956, Bell Labs employee Ross produced a binary counter circuit based on n-p-n-p basis structures in a single single crystal. In 1957, Yasuro Taru from the Japanese company MITI received a patent for combining various transistors in one crystal. But all these and other similar developments were of a private nature, were not brought to production and did not become the basis for the development of integrated electronics. Only three projects contributed to the development of IP in industrial production.

The lucky ones were the already mentioned Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments (TI), Robert Noyce from Fairchild (both from the USA) and Yuri Valentinovich Osokin from the design bureau of the Riga Semiconductor Device Plant (USSR). The Americans created experimental samples of integrated circuits: J. Kilby - a prototype of an IC generator (1958), and then a trigger on mesa transistors (1961), R. Noyce - a trigger using planar technology (1961), and Yu. Osokin – the logical IC “2NOT-OR” immediately went into mass production in Germany (1962). These companies began serial production of IP almost simultaneously, in 1962.

First semiconductor ICs in the USA

IP by Jack Kilby. IS series SN - 51”

In 1958, J. Kilby (a pioneer in the use of transistors in hearing aids) moved to Texas Instruments. The newcomer Kilby, as a circuit designer, was “thrown” into improving the micromodular filling of rockets by creating an alternative to micromodules. The option of assembling blocks from standard-shaped parts, similar to assembling toy models from LEGO figures, was considered. However, Kilby was fascinated by something else. The decisive role was played by the effect of a “fresh look”: firstly, he immediately stated that micromodules are a dead end, and secondly, having admired the mesa structures, he came to the idea that the circuit should (and can) be implemented from one material - a semiconductor. Kilby knew about Dummer's idea and his unsuccessful attempt to implement it in 1956. After analyzing, he understood the reason for the failure and found a way to overcome it. “ My credit is that I took this idea and turned it into reality.”, J. Kilby said later in his Nobel speech.

Having not yet earned the right to leave, he worked in the laboratory without interference while everyone was resting. On July 24, 1958, Kilby formulated a concept in a laboratory journal called the Monolithic Idea. Its essence was that “. ..circuit elements such as resistors, capacitors, distributed capacitors and transistors can be integrated into a single chip - provided that they are made of the same material... In a flip-flop circuit design, all elements must be made of silicon, with resistors being use the volume resistance of silicon, and capacitors - the capacitance of p-n junctions". The “monolith idea” met with a condescending and ironic attitude from the management of Texas Instruments, which demanded proof of the possibility of manufacturing transistors, resistors and capacitors from a semiconductor and the operability of a circuit assembled from such elements.

In September 1958, Kilby realized his idea - he made a generator from two pieces of germanium measuring 11.1 x 1.6 mm, glued together with beeswax on a glass substrate, containing two types of diffusion regions (Fig. 1). He used these areas and the existing contacts to create a generator circuit, connecting the elements with thin gold wires with a diameter of 100 microns using thermocompression welding. A mesatransistor was created from one area, and an RC circuit was created from the other. The assembled three generators were demonstrated to the company management. When the power was connected, they started working at a frequency of 1.3 MHz. This happened on September 12, 1958. A week later, Kilby made an amplifier in a similar manner. But these were not yet integrated structures, these were three-dimensional mock-ups of semiconductor ICs, proving the idea of ​​​​manufacturing all circuit elements from one material - a semiconductor.

Rice. 3. Trigger Type 502 J. Kilby. Photo from the site http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958-Miniaturized.html

Kilby's first truly integrated circuit, made in a single piece of monolithic germanium, was the experimental Type 502 trigger IC (Fig. 3). It used both the volume resistance of germanium and the capacitance of the p-n junction. Its presentation took place in March 1959. A small number of such ICs were manufactured in laboratory conditions and sold to a small circle for $450. The IC contained six elements: four mesa transistors and two resistors, placed on a silicon wafer with a diameter of 1 cm. But Kilby's IC had a serious drawback - mesa transistors, which in the form of microscopic “active” columns towered above the rest, “passive” part of the crystal. The connection of mesa columns to each other in the Kilby IS was carried out by boiling thin gold wires - the “hairy technology” hated by everyone. It became clear that with such interconnections a microcircuit with a large number of elements cannot be made - the wire web will break or reconnect. And germanium at that time was already considered as a non-promising material. There was no breakthrough.

By this time, Fairchild had developed planar silicon technology. Given all this, Texas Instruments had to put everything Kilby had done aside and begin, without Kilby, to develop a series of ICs based on planar silicon technology. In October 1961, the company announced the creation of a series of ICs of the SN-51 type, and in 1962 it began their mass production and deliveries in the interests of the US Department of Defense and NASA.

IP by Robert Noyce. IS seriesMicrologic”

In 1957, for a number of reasons, W. Shockley, the inventor of the planar transistor, left a group of eight young engineers who wanted to try to implement their own ideas. “The Eight Traitors,” as Shockley called them, whose leaders were R. Noyce and G. Moore, founded the company Fairchild Semiconductor (“beautiful child”). The company was headed by Robert Noyce, he was then 23 years old.

At the end of 1958, physicist D. Horney, who worked at Fairchild Semiconductor, developed planar technology for manufacturing transistors. And Czech-born physicist Kurt Lehovec, who worked at Sprague Electric, developed a technique for using a reverse-connected n-p junction to electrically isolate components. In 1959, Robert Noyce, having heard about Kilby's IC design, decided to try to create an integrated circuit by combining the processes proposed by Horney and Lehovec. And instead of “hairy technology” of interconnects, Noyce proposed selective deposition of a thin layer of metal on top of silicon dioxide-insulated semiconductor structures with connection to the contacts of the elements through holes left in the insulating layer. This made it possible to “immerse” the active elements in the body of the semiconductor, insulating them with silicon oxide, and then connect these elements with sputtered tracks of aluminum or gold, which are created using the processes of photolithography, metallization and etching at the last stage of product manufacturing. Thus, a truly “monolithic” version of combining components into a single circuit was obtained, and the new technology was called “planar”. But first the idea had to be tested.

Rice. 4. Experimental trigger by R. Noyce. Photo from the site http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1960-FirstIC.html

Rice. 5. Photo of Micrologic IC in Life magazine. Photo from the site http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1960-FirstIC.html

In August 1959, R. Noyce commissioned Joy Last to develop a version of the IC based on planar technology. First, like Kilby, they made a prototype of a trigger on several silicon crystals, on which 4 transistors and 5 resistors were made. Then, on May 26, 1960, the first single-chip trigger was manufactured. To isolate the elements in it, deep grooves were etched on the back side of the silicon wafer and filled with epoxy resin. On September 27, 1960, a third version of the trigger was manufactured (Fig. 4), in which the elements were isolated by a reverse-connected p-n junction.

Until that time, Fairchild Semiconductor was only involved in transistors; it did not have circuit designers to create semiconductor ICs. Therefore, Robert Norman from Sperry Gyroscope was invited as a circuit designer. Norman was familiar with resistor-transistor logic, which the company, at his suggestion, chose as the basis for its future “Micrologic” series of ICs, which found its first application in the equipment of the Minuteman rocket. In March 1961, Fairchild announced the first experimental IC of this series (F-flip-flop containing six elements: four bipolar transistors and two resistors placed on a plate with a diameter of 1 cm) with the publication of its photograph (Fig. 5) in the magazine Life(dated March 10, 1961). Another 5 IPs were announced in October. And from the beginning of 1962, Fairchild launched mass production of ICs and their supply also in the interests of the US Department of Defense and NASA.

Kilby and Noyce had to listen to a lot of criticism about their innovations. It was believed that the practical yield of suitable integrated circuits would be very low. It is clear that it should be lower than that of transistors (since it contains several transistors), for which it was then no higher than 15%. Secondly, many believed that inappropriate materials were used in integrated circuits, since resistors and capacitors were not made from semiconductors at that time. Thirdly, many could not accept the idea of ​​​​non-repairability of the IP. It seemed blasphemous to them to throw away a product in which only one of many elements had failed. All doubts were gradually cast aside when integrated circuits were successfully used in the US military and space programs.

One of the founders of Fairchild Semiconductor, G. Moore, formulated the basic law of the development of silicon microelectronics, according to which the number of transistors in an integrated circuit crystal doubled every year. This law, called “Moore's Law,” operated quite clearly for the first 15 years (starting in 1959), and then this doubling occurred in about a year and a half.

Further, the IP industry in the United States began to develop at a rapid pace. In the United States, an avalanche-like process of the emergence of enterprises oriented exclusively “for planar” began, sometimes reaching the point that a dozen companies were registered per week. Striving for veterans (the firms of W. Shockley and R. Noyce), as well as thanks to tax incentives and service provided by Stanford University, the “newcomers” clustered mainly in the Santa Clara Valley (California). Therefore, it is not surprising that in 1971, with the light hand of journalist and popularizer of technical innovations Don Hofler, the romantic-technological image of “Silicon Valley” came into circulation, forever becoming synonymous with the Mecca of the semiconductor technological revolution. By the way, in that area there really is a valley that was previously famous for its numerous apricot, cherry and plum orchards, which before the appearance of the Shockley company had another, more pleasant name - the Valley of Heart's Delight, now, unfortunately, almost forgotten.

In 1962, mass production of integrated circuits began in the United States, although their volume of deliveries to customers amounted to only a few thousand. The strongest incentive for the development of the instrument-making and electronics industry on a new basis was rocket and space technology. At that time, the United States did not have the same powerful intercontinental ballistic missiles as the Soviet ones, and in order to increase the charge, they were forced to minimize the mass of the carrier, including control systems, due to the introduction of the latest achievements electronic technology. Texas Instrument and Fairchild Semiconductor have entered into large contracts for the design and manufacture of integrated circuits with the US Department of Defense and NASA.

The first semiconductor ICs in the USSR

By the late 1950s, Soviet industry was so desperate for semiconductor diodes and transistors that radical measures were required. In 1959, semiconductor device factories were founded in Aleksandrov, Bryansk, Voronezh, Riga, etc. In January 1961, the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers adopted another Resolution “On the development of the semiconductor industry,” which provided for the construction of factories and research institutes in Kyiv, Minsk, Yerevan, Nalchik and other cities.

We will be interested in one of the new factories - the above-mentioned Riga Semiconductor Devices Plant (RZPP, it changed its names several times, for simplicity we use the most famous one, which is still in operation today). The building of the cooperative technical school under construction with an area of ​​5300 m 2 was allocated as a launching pad for the new plant, and at the same time construction of a special building began. By February 1960, the plant had already created 32 services, 11 laboratories and pilot production, which began in April to prepare for the production of the first devices. The plant already employed 350 people, 260 of whom were sent to study at the Moscow Research Institute-35 (later the Pulsar Research Institute) and the Leningrad Svetlana plant during the year. And by the end of 1960, the number of employees reached 1,900 people. Initially, the technological lines were located in the rebuilt gymnasium of the cooperative technical school building, and the OKB laboratories were located in the former classrooms. The plant produced the first devices (alloy-diffusion and conversion germanium transistors P-401, P-403, P-601 and P-602 developed by NII-35) 9 months after the order for its creation was signed, in March 1960. And by the end of July, he manufactured the first thousand P-401 transistors. Then he mastered the production of many other transistors and diodes. In June 1961, construction of a special building was completed, in which mass production of semiconductor devices began.

Since 1961, the plant began independent technological and development work, including mechanization and automation of the production of transistors based on photolithography. For this purpose, the first domestic photo repeater (photo stamp) was developed - an installation for combining and contact photo printing (developed by A.S. Gotman). Great assistance in financing and manufacturing unique equipment was provided by enterprises of the Ministry of Radio Industry, including KB-1 (later NPO Almaz, Moscow) and NIIRE. At that time, the most active developers of small-sized radio equipment, not having their own technological semiconductor base, were looking for ways to creatively interact with newly created semiconductor factories.

At RZPP, active work was carried out to automate the production of germanium transistors of the P401 and P403 types based on the Ausma production line created by the plant. Its chief designer (GC) A.S. Gottman proposed making current-carrying paths on the surface of germanium from the electrodes of the transistor to the periphery of the crystal to make it easier to weld the transistor leads in the housing. But most importantly, these tracks could be used as external terminals of the transistor when they were assembled into boards (containing connecting and passive elements) without packaging, soldering them directly to the corresponding contact pads (in fact, the technology for creating hybrid ICs was proposed). The proposed method, in which the current-carrying paths of the crystal seem to kiss the contact pads of the board, received the original name - “kissing technology”. But due to a number of technological problems that turned out to be insoluble at that time, mainly related to problems with the accuracy of obtaining contacts on a printed circuit board, it was not possible to practically implement the “kiss technology”. A few years later, a similar idea was implemented in the USA and the USSR and found wide application in the so-called “ball leads” and in “chip-to-board” technology.

However, hardware companies collaborating with RZPP, including NIIRE, hoped for “kiss technology” and planned its use. In the spring of 1962, when it became clear that its implementation was postponed indefinitely, chief engineer of NIIRE V.I. Smirnov asked the director of the RZPP S.A. Bergman to find another way to implement a multi-element 2NOR circuit, universal for building digital devices.

Rice. 7. Equivalent circuit of IC R12-2 (1LB021). Drawing from the 1965 IP prospectus.

The first IS and GIS by Yuri Osokin. Solid scheme R12-2(IS series 102 And 116 )

The director of the RZPP entrusted this task to the young engineer Yuri Valentinovich Osokin. We organized a department consisting of a technology laboratory, a laboratory for the development and production of photo masks, a measuring laboratory and a pilot production line. At that time, the technology for manufacturing germanium diodes and transistors was supplied to RZPP, and it was taken as the basis for the new development. And already in the fall of 1962, the first prototypes of a germanium solid circuit 2NOT-OR were obtained (since the term IS did not exist then, out of respect for the affairs of those days, we will retain the name “hard circuit” - TS), which received the factory designation “P12-2”. An advertising booklet from 1965 on P12-2 has survived (Fig. 6), information and illustrations from which we will use. TS R12-2 contained two germanium p - n - p -transistors (modified transistors of type P401 and P403) with a common load in the form of a distributed germanium p-type resistor (Fig. 7).

Rice. 8. Structure of IC R12-2. Drawing from the 1965 IP prospectus.

Rice. 9. Dimensional drawing of vehicle R12-2. Drawing from the 1965 IP prospectus.

External leads are formed by thermocompression welding between the germanium regions of the TC structure and the gold of the lead conductors. This ensures stable operation of the circuits under external influences in tropical and sea fog conditions, which is especially important for operation in naval quasi-electronic telephone exchanges produced by the Riga VEF plant, which was also interested in this development.

Structurally, the R12-2 TS (and the subsequent R12-5) were made in the form of a “tablet” (Fig. 9) from a round metal cup with a diameter of 3 mm and a height of 0.8 mm. The TC crystal was placed in it and filled with a polymer compound, from which came the short outer ends of the leads made of soft gold wire with a diameter of 50 microns, welded to the crystal. The mass of P12-2 did not exceed 25 mg. In this design, the vehicles were resistant to relative humidity of 80% at an ambient temperature of 40 ° C and to cyclic temperature changes from -60 ° to 60 ° C.

By the end of 1962, the pilot production of RZPP produced about 5 thousand R12-2 vehicles, and in 1963 several tens of thousands of them were made. Thus, 1962 became the year of birth of the microelectronic industry in the USA and the USSR.

Rice. 10. TS groups R12-2

Rice. 11. Basic electrical characteristics of R12-2

Semiconductor technology was then in its infancy and did not yet guarantee strict repeatability of parameters. Therefore, functional devices were sorted into groups of parameters (this is often done in our time). The residents of Riga did the same, installing 8 standard ratings of the R12-2 vehicle (Fig. 10). All other electrical and other characteristics are the same for all standard ratings (Fig. 11).

The production of TS R12-2 began simultaneously with the research and development work “Hardness”, which ended in 1964 (GK Yu.V. Osokin). As part of this work, an improved group technology for the serial production of germanium vehicles was developed based on photolithography and galvanic deposition of alloys through a photomask. Its main technical solutions are registered as an invention by Yu.V. Osokin. and Mikhalovich D.L. (A.S. No. 36845). Several articles by Yu.V. were published in the “Special Radioelectronics” magazine, which was published with the stamp “secret”. Osokina in collaboration with KB-1 specialists I.V. Nothing, G.G. Smolko and Yu.E. Naumov with a description of the design and characteristics of the R12-2 vehicle (and the subsequent R12-5 vehicle).

The design of the P12-2 was good in everything, except for one thing - consumers did not know how to use such small products with the thinnest leads. As a rule, hardware companies had neither the technology nor the equipment for this. Over the entire period of production of R12-2 and R12-5, their use was mastered by NIIRE, the Zhigulevsky Radio Plant of the Ministry of Radio Industry, VEF, NIIP (since 1978 NPO Radiopribor) and a few other enterprises. Understanding the problem, the TS developers, together with NIIRE, immediately thought of a second level of design, which at the same time increased the density of the equipment layout.

Rice. 12. Module of 4 vehicles R12-2

In 1963, at NIIRE, within the framework of the Kvant design and development work (GK A.N. Pelipenko, with the participation of E.M. Lyakhovich), a module design was developed that combined four R12-2 vehicles (Fig. 12). From two to four R12-2 devices (in a housing) were placed on a microboard made of thin fiberglass, which collectively implemented a certain functional unit. Up to 17 pins (the number varied for a specific module) with a length of 4 mm were pressed onto the board. The microboard was placed in a stamped metal cup measuring 21.6 ? 6.6 mm and 3.1 mm deep and filled with a polymer compound. The result is a hybrid integrated circuit (HIC) with double sealing of elements. And, as we already said, it was the world's first GIS with two-level integration, and, perhaps, the first GIS in general. Eight types of modules with the general name “Quantum” were developed, performing various logical functions. As part of such modules, the R12-2 vehicles remained operational when exposed to constant accelerations of up to 150 g and vibration loads in the frequency range of 5–2000 Hz with acceleration up to 15 g.

The Kvant modules were first produced by the pilot production of NIIRE, and then they were transferred to the Zhigulevsky Radio Plant of the USSR Ministry of Radio Industry, which supplied them to various consumers, including the VEF plant.

TS R12-2 and “Kvant” modules based on them have proven themselves well and are widely used. In 1968, a standard was issued establishing a unified designation system for integrated circuits in the country, and in 1969 - General technical specifications for semiconductor (NP0.073.004TU) and hybrid (NP0.073.003TU) ICs with unified system requirements. In accordance with these requirements, the Central Bureau for the Application of Integrated Circuits (TsBPIMS, later CDB Dayton, Zelenograd) on February 6, 1969 approved new technical specifications ShT3.369.001-1TU for the vehicle. At the same time, the term “integrated circuit” of the 102 series appeared for the first time in the designation of the product. TS R12-2 began to be called IS: 1LB021V, 1LB021G, 1LB021ZH, 1LB021I. In fact, it was one IC, sorted into four groups according to output voltage and load capacity.

Rice. 13. 116 and 117 series ICs

And on September 19, 1970, TsBPIMS approved the technical specifications AB0.308.014TU for the Kvant modules, designated IS series 116 (Fig. 13). The series included nine ICs: 1ХЛ161, 1ХЛ162 and 1ХЛ163 – multifunctional digital circuits; 1LE161 and 1LE162 – two and four logical elements 2NOR; 1TP161 and 1TP1162 – one and two triggers; 1UP161 – power amplifier, as well as 1LP161 – “inhibition” logic element for 4 inputs and 4 outputs. Each of these ICs had from four to seven design options, differing in output signal voltage and load capacity, for a total of 58 IC types. The designs were marked with a letter after the digital part of the IS designation, for example, 1ХЛ161ж. Subsequently, the range of modules expanded. The ICs of the 116 series were actually hybrid, but at the request of RZPP they were labeled as semiconductor (the first digit in the designation is “1”, hybrid ones should have “2”).

In 1972, by a joint decision of the Ministry of Electronics Industry and the Ministry of Radio Industry, the production of modules was transferred from the Zhigulevsky Radio Plant to RZPP. This eliminated the possibility of transporting the 102 series ICs over long distances, so they abandoned the need to seal the die of each IC. As a result, the design of both the 102 and 116 series ICs was simplified: there was no need to package the 102 series ICs in a metal cup filled with compound. Unpackaged ICs of the 102 series in technological containers were delivered to a neighboring workshop for the assembly of ICs of the 116 series, mounted directly on their microboard and sealed in the module housing.

In the mid-1970s, a new standard for the IP designation system was released. After this, for example, IS 1LB021V received the designation 102LB1V.

Second IS and GIS by Yuri Osokin. Solid scheme R12-5(IS series 103 And 117 )

By the beginning of 1963, as a result of serious work on the development of high-frequency n - p - n transistors, the team of Yu.V. Osokina has accumulated extensive experience working with p-layers on the original n-germanium wafer. This and the presence of all the necessary technological components allowed Osokin in 1963 to begin developing new technology and the design of a faster version of the vehicle. In 1964, by order of NIIRE, the development of the R12-5 vehicle and modules based on it was completed. Based on its results, the Palanga design and development work was opened in 1965 (GK Yu.V. Osokin, his deputy - D.L. Mikhalovich, completed in 1966). Modules based on the R12-5 were developed within the framework of the same R&D project “Kvant” as the modules based on the R12-2. Simultaneously with the technical specifications for the 102 and 116 series, the technical specifications ShT3.369.002-2TU for the 103 series IC (R12-5) and AV0.308.016TU for the 117 series IC (modules based on the 103 series IC) were approved. The nomenclature of types and standard ratings of TS R12-2, modules on them and IS series 102 and 116 was identical to the nomenclature of TS R12-5 and IS series 103 and 117, respectively. They differed only in speed and manufacturing technology of the IC crystal. The typical propagation delay time of the 117 series was 55 ns versus 200 ns for the 116 series.

Structurally, the R12-5 TS was a four-layer semiconductor structure (Fig. 14), where the n-type substrate and p + -type emitters were connected to a common ground bus. The main technical solutions for constructing the R12-5 vehicle are registered as the invention of Yu.V. Osokin, D.L. Mikhalovich. Kaydalova Zh.A and Akmensa Ya.P. (A.S. No. 248847). When manufacturing the four-layer structure of the TC R12-5, an important know-how was the formation of an n-type p-layer in the original germanium plate. This was achieved by diffusion of zinc in a sealed quartz ampoule, where the plates are located at a temperature of about 900 ° C, and zinc is located at the other end of the ampoule at a temperature of about 500 ° C. The further formation of the TS structure in the created p-layer is similar to the P12-2 TS. New technology allowed us to get away from the complex shape of the TS crystal. Wafers with P12-5 were also ground from the back to a thickness of about 150 microns, retaining part of the original wafer, and then they were scribed into individual rectangular IC chips.

Rice. 14. Structure of the TS R12-5 crystal from AS No. 248847. 1 and 2 – ground, 3 and 4 – inputs, 5 – output, 6 – power

After the first positive results of the production of experimental R12-5 vehicles, the Mezon-2 research project was opened by order of KB-1, aimed at creating a vehicle with four R12-5. In 1965, working samples in a flat metal-ceramic case were obtained. But P12-5 turned out to be difficult to manufacture, mainly due to the difficulty of forming a zinc-doped p-layer on the original n-Ge wafer. The crystal turned out to be labor-intensive to produce, the yield percentage is low, and the cost of the vehicle is high. For the same reasons, the R12-5 TC was produced in small volumes and could not displace the slower, but more technologically advanced R12-2. And the Mezon-2 research project was not continued at all, including due to interconnection problems.

By this time, the Pulsar Research Institute and the NIIME were already carrying out extensive work on the development of planar silicon technology, which has a number of advantages over germanium technology, the main of which is a higher operating temperature range (+150°C for silicon and +70°C for germanium) and the presence of natural silicon protective film SiO2. And the specialization of RZPP was reoriented to the creation of analog ICs. Therefore, RZPP specialists considered the development of germanium technology for the production of ICs inappropriate. However, in the production of transistors and diodes, germanium did not lose its position for some time. In the department of Yu.V. Osokin, after 1966, RZPP germanium planar low-noise microwave transistors GT329, GT341, GT 383, etc. were developed and produced. Their creation was awarded the State Prize of the Latvian USSR.

Application

Rice. 15. Arithmetic device on solid-circuit modules. Photo from the TS booklet dated 1965.

Rice. 16. Comparative dimensions of the automatic telephone exchange control device, made on a relay and a vehicle. Photo from the TS booklet dated 1965.

The customers and first consumers of the R12-2 TS and modules were the creators of specific systems: the Gnome computer (Fig. 15) for the Kupol on-board aircraft system (NIIRE, GK Lyakhovich E.M.) and naval and civil automatic telephone exchanges (plant VEF, GK Misulovin L.Ya.). Actively participated in all stages of the creation of the R12-2, R12-5 vehicles and modules on them and KB-1, the main curator of this cooperation from KB-1 was N.A. Barkanov. They helped with financing, equipment manufacturing, and research of vehicles and modules in various modes and operating conditions.

TS R12-2 and “Kvant” modules based on it were the first microcircuits in the country. And in the world they were among the first - only in the USA did Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor begin to produce their first semiconductor ICs, and in 1964 the IBM Corporation began producing thick-film hybrid ICs for its computers. In other countries, IP has not yet been thought about. Therefore, integrated circuits were a curiosity to the public; the effectiveness of their use made a striking impression and was played up in advertising. The surviving booklet on the R12-2 vehicle from 1965 (based on actual applications) says: “ The use of solid-state P12-2 circuits in on-board computing devices makes it possible to reduce the weight and dimensions of these devices by 10–20 times, reduce power consumption and increase operational reliability. ... The use of solid P12-2 circuits in control systems and switching of information transmission paths of automatic telephone exchanges makes it possible to reduce the volume of control devices by approximately 300 times, as well as significantly reduce electricity consumption (30-50 times)" . These statements were illustrated by photographs of the arithmetic device of the Gnome computer (Fig. 15) and a comparison of the relay-based ATS rack produced by the VEF plant at that time with a small block on the girl’s palm (Fig. 16). There were other numerous applications of the first Riga ICs.

Production

Now it is difficult to restore a complete picture of the production volumes of IC series 102 and 103 by year (today RZPP has turned from a large plant into a small production and many archives have been lost). But according to the memoirs of Yu.V. Osokin, in the second half of the 1960s, production amounted to many hundreds of thousands per year, in the 1970s - millions. According to his surviving personal notes, in 1985, ICs of the 102 series were produced - 4,100,000 pcs., modules of the 116 series - 1,025,000 pcs., ICs of the 103 series - 700,000 pcs., modules of the 117 series - 175,000 pcs.

At the end of 1989, Yu.V. Osokin, then the general director of Alpha Production Association, turned to the leadership of the Military-Industrial Commission under the Council of Ministers of the USSR (MIC) with a request to remove series 102, 103, 116 and 117 from production due to their obsolescence and high labor intensity (in 25 years, microelectronics is far from went ahead), but received a categorical refusal. Deputy Chairman of the Military-Industrial Complex V.L. Koblov told him that the planes fly reliably, replacement is excluded. After the collapse of the USSR, IC series 102, 103, 116 and 117 were produced until the mid-1990s, i.e. for more than 30 years. The Gnome computers are still installed in the navigation cabin of the Il-76 and some other aircraft. “This is a supercomputer,” our pilots are not at a loss when their foreign colleagues are surprised by their interest in this unprecedented device.

About priorities

Despite the fact that J. Kilby and R. Noyce had predecessors, they are recognized by the world community as the inventors of the integrated circuit.

R. Kilby and J. Noyce, through their firms, applied for a patent for the invention of an integrated circuit. Texas Instruments applied for a patent earlier, in February 1959, and Fairchild did not do so until July of that year. But patent number 2981877 was issued in April 1961 to R. Noyce. J. Kilby sued and only in June 1964 received his patent number 3138743. Then there was a ten-year war about priorities, as a result of which (in a rare case) “friendship won.” Ultimately, the Court of Appeal upheld Noyce's claim to technological primacy, but ruled that J. Kilby should be credited with creating the first working microcircuit. And Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor signed an agreement on cross-licensing technologies.

In the USSR, patenting inventions did not give authors anything other than hassle, an insignificant one-time payment and moral satisfaction, so many inventions were not registered at all. And Osokin was in no hurry either. But for enterprises, the number of inventions was one of the indicators, so they still had to be registered. Therefore, Yu. Osokina and D. Mikhalovich received the USSR Author's Certificate No. 36845 for the invention of the R12-2 vehicle only on June 28, 1966.

And J. Kilby in 2000 became one of the Nobel Prize laureates for the invention of IP. R. Noyce did not receive world recognition; he died in 1990, and according to the regulations, the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously. Which, in this case, is not entirely fair, since all microelectronics followed the path begun by R. Noyce. Noyce’s authority among specialists was so high that he even received the nickname “mayor of Silicon Valley,” since he was then the most popular of the scientists working in that part of California, which received the unofficial name Silicon Valley (V. Shockley was called “Moses of Silicon Valley”) . But the path of J. Kilby (“hairy” germanium) turned out to be a dead end, and was not implemented even in his company. But life is not always fair.

The Nobel Prize was awarded to three scientists. Half of it was received by 77-year-old Jack Kilby, and the other half was divided between academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Zhores Alferov and professor at the University of California at Santa Barbara, German-American Herbert Kremer, for “the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed optoelectronics.”

Evaluating these works, experts noted that “integrated circuits are, of course, the discovery of the century, which has had a profound impact on society and the world economy.” For the forgotten J. Kilby, the Nobel Prize was a surprise. In an interview with the magazine Europhysics News he admitted: “ At that time, I was only thinking about what would be important for the development of electronics from an economic point of view. But I didn’t understand then that the reduction in the cost of electronic products would cause an avalanche of growth in electronic technologies.”.

And the works of Yu. Osokin are not appreciated not only by the Nobel Committee. They are also forgotten in our country; the country’s priority in the creation of microelectronics is not protected. And he undoubtedly was.

In the 1950s, the material basis was created for the formation of multi-element products - integrated circuits - in one monolithic crystal or on one ceramic substrate. Therefore, it is not surprising that almost simultaneously the idea of ​​IP independently arose in the minds of many specialists. And the efficiency of introducing a new idea depended on technological capabilities the author and the interest of the manufacturer, i.e., the presence of the first consumer. In this regard, Yu. Osokin found himself in a better position than his American colleagues. Kilby was new to TI, he even had to prove to the company's management the fundamental possibility of implementing a monolithic circuit by making its prototype. Actually, the role of J. Kilby in the creation of the IP comes down to re-educating the management of TI and provoking R. Noyce to take active action with his layout. Kilby's invention did not go into mass production. R. Noyce, in his young and not yet strong company, went to create a new planar technology, which indeed became the basis for subsequent microelectronics, but did not immediately yield to the author. In connection with the above, both of them and their companies had to spend a lot of effort and time to practical implementation their ideas for building serially capable IPs. Their first samples remained experimental, but other microcircuits, not even developed by them, went into mass production. Unlike Kilby and Noyce, who were far from production, factory owner Yu. Osokin relied on industrially developed semiconductor technologies of RZPP, and he had guaranteed consumers of the first vehicles in the form of the initiator of the development of NIIRE and the nearby VEF plant, which helped in this work. For these reasons, the first version of his vehicle immediately went into experimental production, which smoothly transitioned into mass production, which continued continuously for more than 30 years. Thus, having started developing the TS later than Kilby and Noyce, Yu. Osokin (not knowing about this competition) quickly caught up with them. Moreover, the works of Yu. Osokin are in no way connected with the works of the Americans, evidence of this is the absolute dissimilarity of his vehicle and the solutions implemented in it from the Kilby and Noyce microcircuits. Texas Instruments (not Kilby's invention), Fairchild and RZPP began production of their ICs almost simultaneously, in 1962. This gives every right to consider Yu. Osokin one of the inventors of the integrated circuit on a par with R. Noyce and more than J. Kilby, and it would be fair to share part of the Nobel Prize for J. Kilby with Yu. Osokin. As for the invention of the first GIS with two-level integration (and possibly GIS in general), here the priority of A. Pelipenko from NIIRE is absolutely indisputable.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to find samples of vehicles and devices based on them, necessary for museums. The author would be very grateful for such samples or photographs of them.